Hero

    While I have not read all of the literature mentioned in this question, there does seem to be a common thread among the stories that I am familiar with. In stories like The Odyssey and Star Wars (glad I finally have an excuse to reference these next to each other) the lead character or characters that the audience follows is in search of some sort of peace. Whether it's getting home after a hard fought war, to fight a war for freedom against an evil empire, or even to find and acquire the Ark of the Covenant before the Nazis (Raiders of the Lost Ark), they are all seeking some concept in their minds they think is worth fighting for. Even when it is something physical like in Raiders of the Lost Ark, it represents something much bigger like a direct connection to God. They are also fighting against a mostly invisible, indominable force who is always present in the minds of the characters and audience. The force is not often in contact with the characters, but it feels overwhelming and exists in spirit throughout the story. 

    These lead characters are often referred to as heroes, and I would agree that because the stories are told through their eyes, they are the heroes. Heroes are characters who can act with bravery, ingenuity, and strength in pursuit of a noble cause. In The Odyssey, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Star Wars, and Raiders of the Lost Ark, our heroes are set up against a clear obstacle to overcome. The obstacle often seems overwhelming, but through creative thinking and courage they often succeed. That is the basic definition we use to define heroic actions. It can also involve personal sacrifice, emphasizing the importance of how "the needs of the many outweighs the needs of the few" (Leonard Nimoy). Heroic actions serve a greater purpose, otherwise these characters are just selfish people pursuing their own goals. Heroic behavior is consistency of character, involving a cause greater than the hero. Most people can be brave occasionally, but a hero shows bravery in every context.

    A woman can serve the role of a hero, but in Western culture it is not incredibly common to see a woman in it. Out of all the stories listed Princess Leia is the first name that comes to my mind, but that's more of a statement than a list. It is possible that there are not that many depictions of heroines because it is more common to think of men as a type of strong, emotionless protector and of women as emotional caregivers. This makes it easier for storytellers to tell about a man who abandons all responsibility to go on a quest for redemption or glory. I would define the conduct that heroes model as selfless, moral, and consistent. If a character acts for the needs of the few instead of the needs of the many, acts immorally, or betrays their counterparts, they cannot be a hero. I admit that everybody's moral code is different, so that is a difficult term to define. For that one I'd say a solid basic rule is that a hero should not be taking advantage of others for personal gain.

    The primary purpose that heroes serve to us as humans is to teach us lessons. No hero is perfect: Odysseus was cocky, Willy Loman was stubborn, Han Solo was both, and they all made mistakes. But their mistakes are told to us so that we can adapt our own behavior to avoid their downfalls or self-made obstacles. While they do not always succeed it does happen quite a bit (especially in recent Western movies) and their success can teach us about the importance of adaptation to our perpetually changing environment. Often times the self obsessed hero will have to learn to accept help and advice from their peers, or the over-righteous hero needs to learn their "perfect" way of doing things rarely works out exactly the way they think it will. In that case it's best to plan for contingencies. The tragic hero is probably a better teacher than the successful one, since their failures are more pronounced. Stevens (The Remains of the Day) and Willy Loman (Death of a Salesman) are examples of this. Stubborn, persistent, closed minded thinkers who refuse to let themselves live outside of their own little world because they are scared of what they will find. What better lesson is there than "Don't get caught up in your own thoughts without acknowledging the humanity of your loved ones because otherwise you could die alone and desperate"? 

    We need heroes for the same reason we study history. To study the mistakes and flaws of these characters is how we learn and avoid making them ourselves in the future. Heroes are teachers of some important inherent character flaws that we humans tend to have. They also serve as beacons of hope that our obstacles can be overcome if we are dedicated enough, as long as we remain open to the possibility that we aren't perfect. "Unhappy the land that needs heroes" means that people who need heroes are also fighting a seemingly unbeatable force (like Odysseus against the gods or Indiana Jones against the entire Nazi army). It says that when we create heroes we are in desperate need of hope, a very powerful emotion, and a people who need that much hope are in serious despair.